根据研究目的,斯特克进一步将个案研究分成三种类型,分别是内在的个案研究(intrinsic case study)、工具性个案研究(instrumental case study)和多个案研究(multiple case study or collective case study)。在内在的个案研究中,研究者研究某个个案,并非因为该个案具有代表性或是具有某种特殊的性质,而是出于对该个案本身的兴趣。在工具性个案研究中,研究者更多地将个案当作探讨某种议题、提炼概括性结论的工具,对于个案本身的兴趣退居次要地位。多个案研究实际上是一种更为极端的工具性个案研究,研究者旨在研究某个总体或一般情况,对于特定的个案本身则没有什么兴趣[3]。
在格尔兹对自己方法论的说明中,以及蒂利对“包围性比较”的概括中,已经不难窥见扩展个案方法(extended case method)思路的端倪——宏观与微观的结合和互动。但真正从方法论的高度对其进行论述和实践的,则首推社会人类学中的曼彻斯特学派。他们不再关注“当地人”应该做什么,而开始记录当地人实际上在做什么。同时考虑那些发生在时空之中的真实的事件、斗争和戏剧性场面。他们展现了规范性描述和日常实践之间的矛盾,并在追溯这些矛盾时,不仅考虑内在的冲突,同时把宏观的权力结构、国家、世界历史背景等因素考虑在内[49]。
[2]Robert E.Stake,Qualitative Case Studies,In Norman K.Denzin and Yvonna S.Lincoln(eds.),The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research,Sage Publications,2005,p.444.
[3]Robert E.Stake,Qualitative Case Studies.
[4]Robert S.Lynd & Helen Merrell Lynd,Middletown:A Study in Contemporary American Culture. New York:Harcourt Brace Company,1929.
[20]John Walton,Making the Theoretical Case.In Charles C.Ragin and Howard S.Becker(eds.),What Is a Case?Exploring the Foundations of Social Inquiry.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1992,p.122.
[23]Giampietro Gobo,Sampling,Representativeness and Generalizability.In Clive Seale.Giampietro Gobo, Jaber F.Gubrium,and David Silverman(eds.),Qualitative Research Practice,Sage Publications, 2004,p.45
[28]P.Alasuutari,Researching Culture:Qualitative Method and Cultural Studies,Sage Publications,1995, p.152.
[29]Alan Scott,The Political Sociology of War.In Kate Nash and Alan Scott(eds.)。The Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology,Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,2001,p.184
[30]Theda Skocpol,States and Social Revolutions A Comparative Analysis of France,Russia,and China. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1979,p.33.
[33]P.Alasuutari,Researching Culture:Qualitative Method and Cultural Studies,Sage Publications,1995, p.152.
[34]Robert K.Yin,Case Study Research:Design and Methods,2 edition,Sage Publications,1994,pp.10,31.
[35]Clive Seale,The Quality of Qualitative Research,Sage Publications,1999,p.109.
[36]Clive Seale,The Quality of Qualitative Research,p.118.
[37]Clive Seale,The Quality of Qualitative Research,p.112.
[38]有研究者试图通过将抽样调查与个案研究结合起来的办法来处理个案研究中过度外推的难题。如克里夫•西尔指出,理论抽样不是取决于抽样单位是否具有典型性,而是要看抽样单位中所体现的变量的性质是否有典型性,是否能代表更广泛的一类现象。他还指出,为了使获得的信息更具有普遍性,减少偏差,在个案研究中可以运用雪球抽样或志愿者抽样的方式来寻找某一类人(Clive Seale,TheQuality of Qualitative Research,pp.110,115—117),扩大消息来源,改变过于倚重信息提供者的局面。这种处理方式在一定程度上增强了结论的说服力,不失为一种解决之道;但并非一劳永逸。如果两项相似的研究选择不同人群就很可能得出完全不同的结论。这种遵循抽样调查逻辑的补救方式并不是非常成功。
[39]Robert E.Stake,Qualitative Case Studies.
[40]张静:《利益组织化单位:企业职代会个案研究》,中国社会科学出版社,2001年,第199页。
[41]张静:《利益组织化单位:企业职代会个案研究》,第201页。
[42]David Silverman,Doing Qualitative Research:A Practical Handbook,Sage Publications,2000.P. Alasuutari,Researching Culture:Qualitative Method and Cultural Studies.Sage Publications,1995, pp.155—156.
[43]Charles C.Ragin,Introduction:The Problem of Balancing Discourse on Cases and Variables In Comparative Social Science.In Charles C.Ragin(ed.),Issues and Alternatiues in Comparative Social Research,E.J.Brill,2003,p.1.James Mahoney,and Dietrich Rueschemeyer,Comparative Historical Analysis:Achievements and Agendas.In James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (eds), Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Science,Cambridge University Press,2003,p.9.
[44]Clive Seale,The Quality of Qualitative Research,p.110.
[45]Giampietro Gobo,Sampling,Representativeness and Generalizability.In Qualitative Research Practice, p.446.
[48]Theda Skocpol,States and Social Revolutions:A Comparative Analysis of France,Russia,and China.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1979,pp.38—39.
[49]Max Gluekman,Analysis of a Social Situation in Modern Zululand,Manchester:Manchester University of Press,1958.Jaap Van Velsen,The Extended Case Method and Situational Analysis.In A. Epstein (ed.),The Craft of Urban Anthropology.London:Tavistock,1967.
[50]参见卢晖临《社区研究:源起、问题与新生》,载《开放时代》2005年第4期。
[51]Michael Burawoy,The Colour 0,Class 0"the Copper Mines,From A frica”Advancement to Zambianization.Manchester:Manchester University Press,1972.另外,可参考Michael Burawory, The Extended Case Method.Sociological Theory,v01.16,no.1,1998,pp.4—33。
[54]Michael Burawoy,Manufacturing Consent:Change in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism. Chicago:University Chicago Press,1979.Michael Burawoy and Jhnos Lukacs, The Radiant Past : Ideology and Reality in Hungary’s Road to Capitalism.Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1992.
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