1903年严复翻译英国学者E·詹克斯(E. Jenks)的著作《社会通诠》(A History of Politics)。该书用历史发展的观点,把历史描绘成从图腾社会向宗法社会、再向国家社会发展的过程。詹克斯认为,在国家社会里,个人是组成社会的基本细胞,人民是平等的;而在宗法社会,社会细胞由家族构成,个人归各自的宗族统辖,并受到祖法的约束,没有自由。[15]受詹克斯进化论历史观的影响,严复认为当时的中国社会终于进入国家社会阶段,属于七分宗法、三分国家性质。日本学者沟口雄三指出,“严复自己在序言中也将宗法与封建合在一起使用,自那以后,将封建社会等同于宗法社会,并看作是历史发展阶段中的一个落后社会的认识得以迅速扩展。”[16]《社会通诠》的翻译在青年知识分子中影响甚大,以致影响了五四新文化运动。沟口雄三指出,《新青年》受到了《社会通诠》的深刻影响,《新青年》曾鼓动打倒宗法社会的文化运动。陈独秀曾说:“东洋民族虽从游牧社会进入宗法,但情形至今仍未改变。虽从酋长政治步入封建政治,至今亦无变化。宗法社会以家族为核心,个人无权。……尊家长、重阶级,故提倡孝。在宗法社会里,……尊元首、重阶级,故提倡忠。忠孝是宗法社会、封建时代的道德,也是半开化东洋民族的一贯精神。”[17]陈独秀照搬了《社会通诠》的理论及严复的案语,视儒家思想为落后的宗法社会的产物。[18]严复和陈独秀的学说可以看成是这一范式确立的标志。
弗里德曼功能团体的宗族观主要解释东南中国社会何以集中了那么多宗族。可是,这个解说提出不久就遭到来自台湾社会(同样是边疆移民社会情景)宗族经验的质疑。巴博德(Burton Pasternak)认为,早期移民社会并没产生宗族,而是产生了处于防卫目的的地域性联庄组织,之后在第二阶段才产生宗族,而水利开发和稻作经济的存在也不一定意味着宗族的产生,相反却更多地涌现出地域化组织。[44]巴博德又根据台南一个客家村落的资料试图表明nonkin association 和地域性群体取代了亲族群血缘群体。[45]庄英章通过台湾竹山汉人社会研究也同样认识到,宗族的出现并非发生在移民边疆的第一阶段,而是出现在第二阶段,其原因是血亲群的扩大和人口压力,同时跟谱系和公共财产也有密切关系。[46]但是,他们只是表现了宗族的地区差异性和多样性,并没有在根本上否弃宗族作为一个财产单位。
Several important transformations of the theoretical paradigm of Han people patriarchal lineage
Dujing
[Abstract] To date, there are a series of research paradigms in Han people patriarchal lineage, including evolutionism-historical materialism, structure-functionalism, Genealogical record systems theory(descent ideology of Fang and Chia-tsu), Historical process theory, the theory of Postmodernism. Evolutionism-historical materialism thinks, Han people patriarchal lineage is a kind of obstract during modern China is constructed. Structure-functionalism holds that it exists in the context of Chinese society, with special function in the social structure. Genealogical record systems theory underlinesthat descent ideology of Fang and Chia-tsu is a key to Han people patriarchal lineage. Historical process theory deems the Han people patriarchal lineage investigated by anthropologists, is only a phrase in the historical river. The theory of postmodernism considers that Han people patriarchal lineage, can adatpt Chinese modernization, providing with traditional culture resources. One after another five theoretical models link up, and have opened a dialogue each other, so that a academic narration had been in progress for more than hundred years. In sum, they discovery the cultural mechanism of the existence or abolishment of Han people patriarchal lineage from different Angle of view. The transformations of the theoretical paradigm were accompanied by the theory of international anthropology: on the one hand, the study of Han people patriarchal lineage enrich the theory of international anthropology, on the other hand, it had became an experimental plots in the theoretic field of international anthropology. In addition, the transformations reflect a deepening in Understanding the Han people patriarchal lineage, meanwhile it shoud be regarded a projection of collective historical mentality to the outside world from different time.
[keywords] Han people patriarchal lineage theoretical paradigm transformations of paradigm Existence mechanism
[①] 参见M.Freedman, Lineage Organization in Southern China. London: Athlone, 1958; M.Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung. New York: Humaniies Press,1966。
[②] 参见L.James Watson, “Chinese Kinship Reconsidered:Anthropological Perpective on Historical Research”, China Quarterly, No.92,1982。
[③] 参见Claes Hallegren, The Code of Chinese Kinship: A Critique of the Work of Maurice Freedman, Ethnos, No. 1-2,1979。
[④] P.Steven Sanggren, History and Magical Power in a China Community, Pp.132-140, 230-231. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1987.
[⑥] 参见Burton Pasternak, “The Disquieting Chinese lineage and Its Anthropology Relatives”, in Hsieh Jin-Chang and Chuang Ying-Chang, ed., The Chinese Family and Its Ritual Behavior, Pp.165-191. Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica,1992(1985)。
[33] 参见Maurice.Freedman, Lineage Organization in Southern China. London: Athlone,1958; Maurice.Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung. New York: Humaniies Press, 1966。
[35] 参见Maurice Freedman, Lineage Organization in Southeastern China, p.9, pp.156-159. London: The Athlone Press, 1958; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung, Pp.159-164. New York: Humanities Press,1966。
[36] 参见Hugh Baker, “The Five Great Clans of the New Territories,” Journal of the Hong Kang Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,No.6,1966; Hugh Baker, A Chinese Lineage Village: Sheung Shui.Stanford: Stanford University Press,1968; Hugh Baker, “Marriage and mediation: Relations between lineage”, in Hugh Baker and Stephan Feuchtwang ,eds., An Old State in New Settings. Oxford: JASO,1991。
[37] 参见Emile Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village. Stanford: Stanford University Press,1973。
[38] 参见Jack Portter, Capitalism and the Chinese Peasant. Berkeley: University of California Press,1968; Jack Portter: “Land and Lineage in Traditional China,” in Maurice Freedman, eds., Family and Kinship in Chinese Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press,1970。
[39] 参见James Watson, Emaigration and the Chinese Lineage: The Mans in Hong Kong and London. Berkeley: University of California Press,1975。
[40] 参见S.Rubie Watson, “Class Differences and Affinal Relatins in South China”, Man(n.s.),No.16, 1981; S.Rubie Watson, “The Greation of a Chinese Lineage: The Teng of Ha Tsuen,1669-1751”, Modern Asin Studies, No16(I) ,1981。
[41] 参见Steven Harrell, Ploughshare:Culture and Context in Taiwan. Seattle: Univesity of Washington Press,1982。
[58] 参见Helen Siu, “Lineage on the sands: The Case of Shawan,” In David Faure & Helen Siu, eds., Down to Earth: The Territorial Bond in South China. Stanford :Stanford University Press, 1995; [美]萧凤霞:《廿载华南研究之旅》,《清华社会学评论》,2001年第1期。
[73] 参见Patricia Ebrey, “Conceptions of the family in the Sung dynasty”, Jourenal of Asian Studies, 43(2), 1984;陈奕麟:《由“土著观点”探讨汉人亲属关系和组织》,《中央研究院民族研究所集刊》1996年总第81期;Francis L.K.Hsu, Clan, Caste, and Club, Princeton, P.61. N.J.: D.Van Nostrand Company, inc., 1963.
[90] 参见David Y.H.Wu, “The conditions of development and decline of Chinese lineages and the formation of ethnic groups”, in Hsieh Jin-Chang and Chuang Ying-Chang, ed., The Chinese Family and Its Ritual Behavior, Pp.192-209. Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica,1992(1985)。